Temporary ponds represent one of the most widespread freshwater environments in the world. Their number and their total surface exceed that of lakes, making them among the most ecologically important lentic ecosystems, capable of sustaining remarkably high biodiversity. In the scientific literature, ponds have recently been defined as small (< 5 ha), shallow (< 5 m) waterbodies with less than 30% emergent vegetation. Their temporary nature is determined by the intermittent hydroperiod, i.e., the period during which liquid water is present within the basin. In these habitats, the hydroperiod is usually limited to part of the year: in Mediterranean regions, autumn, winter, and spring correspond to the “wet phase,” when ponds are filled with water. Conversely, during summer, due to high temperatures and the typical low rainfall of the Mediterranean bioregion, temporary ponds undergo a dry phase. Although this pattern applies to most temporary ponds, high-altitude ponds, typical of alpine bioregions, show an opposite trend: in winter, due to snow cover and low temperatures, water is present but unavailable (frozen as ice or snow); in summer, snowmelt provides liquid water, filling the basin and allowing biological activity to resume. The biodiversity inhabiting these environments is highly specialized and perfectly adapted to recurring dry phases. However, numerous anthropogenic disturbances, such as pollution, land-use changes, urbanization, wildfires, and intensive agricultural and grazing practices, are significantly contributing to the disappearance of these habitats. Among all threats, climate change is the most alarming, as it leads to increasingly shorter hydroperiods and severely impacts the entire biodiversity dependent on these ephemeral ecosystems. Among the most affected organisms are primary producers, particularly diatoms, ubiquitous microscopic algae responsible for approximately 30% of global oxygen production. Although they are included in the EU Water Framework Directive as bioindicators for freshwater environments, their use in temporary systems remains extremely limited. The changes that temporary ponds may undergo in the coming years call for targeted monitoring and conservation actions, in which diatoms can play a key role as sensitive indicators capable of detecting ecological variations at both local and global scales. The main aim of this PhD project was to provide a solid foundation for mapping and monitoring temporary ponds in Italy, filling a significant scientific gap concerning the use of diatoms as bioindicators of ephemeral waters. 1. First objective (Chapter I) — International literature review 14 The first objective was to provide a global overview of the use of diatoms as bioindicators in temporary aquatic environments, by analyzing existing scientific literature and summarizing the main methodologies and approaches adopted. The bibliographic search identified 512 publications, of which 48 papers (from 1982 onward) specifically addressed diatoms and ephemeral waters. To avoid terminological discrepancies, ephemeral waters were classified into three categories: - Intermittent Running Waters (IRW): rivers, streams, creeks, springs - Temporary Large Wetlands (TLW): wetlands, lakes, lagoons - Temporary Small Waters (TSW): ponds, ponds, ventaroles, ditches, thermal waters, troughs Studies were reported from all continents, including Antarctica. The most investigated ecosystems were IRW (n = 683), followed by TSW (n = 239) and TLW (n = 96). Most study sites were located below 1000 m a.s.l. (n = 27) and focused mainly on epilithic diatoms (52%). The main physicochemical parameters considered were electrical conductivity (80%), pH (77%), and water temperature (75%). 2. Second objective (Chapter II) — Mapping high-altitude ponds in Italy The second objective consisted of mapping the distribution of high-altitude ponds (above 300 m a.s.l.) across Italy, creating the first national database. To achieve this, spectral and morphological data from Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 satellites were integrated and processed using Google Earth Engine (GEE). A total of 2,156 ponds were identified, of which 62% (n = 1,343) were located in the Alps and 38% (n = 813) in the Apennines. The regions with the highest pond densities were the Central Alps (n = 642), followed by the Western Alps (n = 479), Central Apennines (n = 412), Eastern Alps (n = 222), Southern Apennines (n = 216), and Northern Apennines (n = 185). The total surface area covered by ponds was estimated at 4,258,640 m², with a mean of 1,716 m² per pond. Approximately 20% (n = 445) of the ponds were temporary, while 80% (n = 1,711) were permanent. In terms of land use, 83% (n = 1,797) of ponds were classified as natural, and 17% (n = 359) as anthropogenic. 3. Third objective (Chapters III, IV, V) — Diatom communities in Mediterranean and alpine ponds The third objective focused on analyzing diatom communities in Mediterranean and Alpine temporary ponds, evaluating how seasonality, hydroperiod, and physicochemical parameters influence taxonomic and functional alpha and beta diversity. A total of 12 temporary ponds were sampled in 15 the Presidential Estate of Castelporziano (sea level, 0–74 m a.s.l.) and 12 ponds in the Campo Imperatore plain (Gran Sasso and Monti della Laga National Park, ~1700 m a.s.l.). Results showed that, in Mediterranean temporary ponds, diatom species richness was not influenced by hydroperiod length or seasonal variation. The most important drivers of community structure were pH and electrical conductivity. Conversely, in Alpine ponds, diatom diversity mainly responded to local and environmental factors, which outweighed any potential geographical gradients. Elevation played a key role in shaping the uniqueness of diatom communities, promoting the development of functionally distinct assemblages at higher altitudes. 4. Fourth objective (Chapters VI, VII, VIII) — Effect of the altitudinal gradient on diatom communities The final objective was to assess how elevation and seasonality affect diatom communities, through the sampling of six ponds along an altitudinal gradient ranging from 0 to 2000 m a.s.l., at approximately 400 m intervals, over one year. Again, pH and electrical conductivity were confirmed as the main driving factors, together with altitude. Community similarity decreased with increasing elevation, halving every ~1059 m; initial similarity (at 1 m elevation difference) was estimated at 0.286, with a halving distance of about 289.56 m. Elevation and environmental variables independently shaped community structure, while seasonal effects were minor. Ecologically, these findings indicate that diatom communities in temporary ponds are strongly structured by physicochemical and altitudinal gradients, making them highly sensitive to environmental changes such as climate shifts or pollution. In conclusion, this PhD thesis addresses a largely understudied topic: the monitoring of the health status of temporary ponds in Italy, achieved through the nationwide mapping of their distribution and the use of diatoms as bioindicators of the effects of seasonality, elevation, and physicochemical variables on these fragile and ephemeral freshwater ecosystems.
Le pozze temporanee rappresentano uno degli ambienti di acqua dolce più diffusi al mondo: il loro numero e la superficie totale supera quella dei laghi, rendendole a tutti gli effetti tra gli ecosistemi lentici più importanti dal punto di vista ecologico, capaci di sostenere un’elevata biodiversità. In letteratura, le pozze sono recentemente definite come corpi idrici di piccole dimensioni (< 5 ha), poco profondi (< 5 m) e con meno del 30% di vegetazione emergente. La loro natura temporanea è determinata dal carattere intermittente dell’idroperiodo, ovvero del periodo durante il quale l’acqua, allo stato liquido, è presente nel bacino. In questi habitat, l’idroperiodo è generalmente limitato a una parte dell’anno: nelle regioni mediterranee, infatti, l’autunno, l’inverno e la primavera corrispondono al periodo di “piena”, quando le pozze sono colme d’acqua. Al contrario, durante l’estate, a causa delle elevate temperature e della scarsa piovosità tipica della bioregione mediterranea, le pozze temporanee attraversano una fase di secca. Sebbene questo schema sia generalizzabile alla maggior parte delle pozze temporanee, quelle d’alta quota, tipiche delle bioregioni alpine, mostrano un andamento opposto: in inverno, a causa della neve e delle basse temperature, l’acqua è presente ma non disponibile (in forma solida, come ghiaccio o neve); viceversa, in estate, lo scioglimento nivale rende l’acqua disponibile allo stato liquido, riempiendo il bacino e consentendo la ripresa dell’attività biologica. La biodiversità che popola questi ambienti è altamente specializzata e perfettamente adattata ai periodi di secca, più o meno ricorrenti. Tuttavia, numerosi disturbi di origine antropica, come inquinamento, modificazioni del suolo, urbanizzazione, incendi e pratiche intensive di allevamento e agricoltura, possono contribuire in modo significativo alla scomparsa di questi habitat. Tra tutti i fattori di minaccia, il cambiamento climatico rappresenta quello più preoccupante, poiché genera idroperiodi sempre più brevi e mette in seria difficoltà l’intera biodiversità che dipende da questi ecosistemi effimeri. Tra gli organismi più impattati vi sono i produttori primari, e in particolare le diatomee, alghe microscopiche ed ubiquitarie, responsabili di circa il 30% della produzione globale di ossigeno. Nonostante siano incluse nella Direttiva Quadro sulle Acque come bioindicatori per gli ambienti d’acqua dolce, il loro utilizzo negli ecosistemi temporanei rimane estremamente limitato. I cambiamenti che potrebbero interessare le pozze temporanee nei prossimi anni richiedono monitoraggi e azioni di conservazione mirate, in cui le diatomee possono rivestire un ruolo chiave, fungendo da indicatori sensibili per rilevare variazioni su scala locale e globale. Lo scopo di questo progetto di dottorato è stato quello di fornire una base solida per le attività di mappatura e monitoraggio delle pozze temporanee in Italia, colmando un importante vuoto scientifico sull’uso delle diatomee come bioindicatori delle acque effimere. 11 1. Primo obiettivo (Capitolo I) — Revisione bibliografica internazionale Il primo obiettivo è stato quello di realizzare una sintesi globale sull’uso delle diatomee come bioindicatori negli ambienti acquatici temporanei, analizzando la letteratura scientifica disponibile e le principali tecniche e approcci adottati. La ricerca bibliografica ha individuato 512 pubblicazioni, delle quali 48 articoli (dal 1982 in poi) trattavano specificamente di diatomee e ambienti effimeri. Per evitare discrepanze terminologiche, gli ambienti effimeri sono stati classificati in tre categorie: - Intermittent Running Waters (IRW): fiumi, torrenti, ruscelli, sorgenti - Temporary Large Wetlands (TLW): zone umide, laghi, lagune - Temporary Small Waters (TSW): stagni, pozze, ventarole, fossi, acque termali, abbeveratoi Studi sono stati riportati in tutti i continenti, inclusa l’Antartide. Gli ecosistemi più indagati risultano gli IRW (n = 683), seguiti da TSW (n = 239) e TLW (n = 96). La maggior parte dei siti studiati si trova al di sotto dei 1000 m s.l.m. (n = 27) e riguarda diatomee epilitiche (52%). I principali parametri fisico-chimici considerati sono stati conduttività elettrica (80%), pH (77%) e temperatura dell’acqua (75%). 2. Secondo obiettivo (Capitolo II) — Mappatura delle pozze d’alta quota in Italia Il secondo obiettivo è stato la mappatura della distribuzione delle pozze d’alta quota (oltre 300 m s.l.m.) sul territorio italiano, creando il primo database nazionale. A tal fine, sono stati integrati dati spettrali e morfologici provenienti dai satelliti Sentinel-1 e Sentinel-2, elaborati su Google Earth Engine (GEE). Sono state identificate 2156 pozze, di cui 62% nelle Alpi (n = 1343) e 38% negli Appennini (n = 813). Le aree con la maggiore densità di pozze sono risultate le Alpi Centrali (n = 642), seguite da Alpi Occidentali (n = 479), Appennino Centrale (n = 412), Alpi Orientali (n = 222), Appennino Meridionale (n = 216) e Appennino Settentrionale (n = 185). La superficie complessiva coperta dalle pozze è stata stimata in 4.258.640 m², con una media di 1716 m². Il 20% delle pozze è risultato temporaneo (n = 445) e l’80% permanente (n = 1711). In termini di uso del suolo, l’83% (n = 1797) è stato classificato come naturale e il 17% (n = 359) come antropizzato. 3. Terzo obiettivo (Capitoli III, IV, V) — Analisi delle comunità di diatomee in pozze mediterranee e alpine Il terzo obiettivo ha riguardato lo studio delle comunità di diatomee in pozze temporanee mediterranee e alpine, valutando come stagionalità, idroperiodo e parametri fisico-chimici 12 influenzino la diversità alfa e beta, sia tassonomica che funzionale. Sono state campionate 12 pozze temporanee nella Tenuta Presidenziale di Castelporziano (a livello del mare, 0 – 74 m a.s.l.) e 12 pozze nella piana di Campo Imperatore (Parco Nazionale del Gran Sasso e Monti della Laga, circa 1700 m s.l.m.). È emerso che, nelle pozze mediterranee, la ricchezza di specie non è influenzata dalla durata dell’idroperiodo o dalle variazioni stagionali. Le variabili più determinanti per la struttura delle comunità sono risultate pH e conduttività elettrica. Al contrario, nelle pozze alpine la diversità delle diatomee risponde principalmente a fattori locali ed ambientali, che prevalgono su eventuali gradienti geografici. L’altitudine gioca un ruolo chiave nel determinare l’unicità delle comunità di diatomee, favorendo lo sviluppo di comunità funzionalmente uniche alle quote più elevate. 4. Quarto obiettivo (Capitoli VI, VII, VIII) — Effetto del gradiente altitudinale sulle comunità di diatomee L’ultimo obiettivo è stato quello di analizzare come la quota altitudinale e la stagionalità influenzino le comunità di diatomee, attraverso il campionamento di sei pozze lungo un gradiente da 0 a 2000 m s.l.m., a intervalli di circa 400 m, per un anno. Anche in questo caso, pH e conduttività elettrica si sono confermati come i principali fattori determinanti, insieme all’altitudine. La similarità tra le comunità diminuisce con l’aumentare della quota, dimezzandosi ogni circa 1059 m; la similarità iniziale (a 1 m di differenza altitudinale) è stata stimata in 0.286, con una distanza di dimezzamento di circa 289.56 m. Altitudine e parametri ambientali influenzano indipendentemente la struttura delle comunità, mentre gli effetti stagionali risultano secondari. Dal punto di vista ecologico, ciò suggerisce che le comunità di diatomee delle pozze temporanee sono fortemente modellate da gradienti fisico-chimici e altitudinali, risultando altamente sensibili ai cambiamenti ambientali. In conclusione, questa tesi di dottorato affronta un tema poco studiato in letteratura: il monitoraggio dello stato di salute delle pozze temporanee in Italia, realizzato attraverso la mappatura della loro distribuzione nazionale e l’impiego delle diatomee come bioindicatori degli effetti di stagionalità, altitudine e variabili chimico-fisiche su questi fragili ecosistemi effimeri.
Taurozzi, D. (2026). Diatom taxonomic diversity and functional ecology in temporary ponds: ecological shifts along a Mediterranean - Alpine elevational gradient.
Diatom taxonomic diversity and functional ecology in temporary ponds: ecological shifts along a Mediterranean - Alpine elevational gradient
Davide Taurozzi
Writing – Original Draft Preparation
2026-04-16
Abstract
Temporary ponds represent one of the most widespread freshwater environments in the world. Their number and their total surface exceed that of lakes, making them among the most ecologically important lentic ecosystems, capable of sustaining remarkably high biodiversity. In the scientific literature, ponds have recently been defined as small (< 5 ha), shallow (< 5 m) waterbodies with less than 30% emergent vegetation. Their temporary nature is determined by the intermittent hydroperiod, i.e., the period during which liquid water is present within the basin. In these habitats, the hydroperiod is usually limited to part of the year: in Mediterranean regions, autumn, winter, and spring correspond to the “wet phase,” when ponds are filled with water. Conversely, during summer, due to high temperatures and the typical low rainfall of the Mediterranean bioregion, temporary ponds undergo a dry phase. Although this pattern applies to most temporary ponds, high-altitude ponds, typical of alpine bioregions, show an opposite trend: in winter, due to snow cover and low temperatures, water is present but unavailable (frozen as ice or snow); in summer, snowmelt provides liquid water, filling the basin and allowing biological activity to resume. The biodiversity inhabiting these environments is highly specialized and perfectly adapted to recurring dry phases. However, numerous anthropogenic disturbances, such as pollution, land-use changes, urbanization, wildfires, and intensive agricultural and grazing practices, are significantly contributing to the disappearance of these habitats. Among all threats, climate change is the most alarming, as it leads to increasingly shorter hydroperiods and severely impacts the entire biodiversity dependent on these ephemeral ecosystems. Among the most affected organisms are primary producers, particularly diatoms, ubiquitous microscopic algae responsible for approximately 30% of global oxygen production. Although they are included in the EU Water Framework Directive as bioindicators for freshwater environments, their use in temporary systems remains extremely limited. The changes that temporary ponds may undergo in the coming years call for targeted monitoring and conservation actions, in which diatoms can play a key role as sensitive indicators capable of detecting ecological variations at both local and global scales. The main aim of this PhD project was to provide a solid foundation for mapping and monitoring temporary ponds in Italy, filling a significant scientific gap concerning the use of diatoms as bioindicators of ephemeral waters. 1. First objective (Chapter I) — International literature review 14 The first objective was to provide a global overview of the use of diatoms as bioindicators in temporary aquatic environments, by analyzing existing scientific literature and summarizing the main methodologies and approaches adopted. The bibliographic search identified 512 publications, of which 48 papers (from 1982 onward) specifically addressed diatoms and ephemeral waters. To avoid terminological discrepancies, ephemeral waters were classified into three categories: - Intermittent Running Waters (IRW): rivers, streams, creeks, springs - Temporary Large Wetlands (TLW): wetlands, lakes, lagoons - Temporary Small Waters (TSW): ponds, ponds, ventaroles, ditches, thermal waters, troughs Studies were reported from all continents, including Antarctica. The most investigated ecosystems were IRW (n = 683), followed by TSW (n = 239) and TLW (n = 96). Most study sites were located below 1000 m a.s.l. (n = 27) and focused mainly on epilithic diatoms (52%). The main physicochemical parameters considered were electrical conductivity (80%), pH (77%), and water temperature (75%). 2. Second objective (Chapter II) — Mapping high-altitude ponds in Italy The second objective consisted of mapping the distribution of high-altitude ponds (above 300 m a.s.l.) across Italy, creating the first national database. To achieve this, spectral and morphological data from Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 satellites were integrated and processed using Google Earth Engine (GEE). A total of 2,156 ponds were identified, of which 62% (n = 1,343) were located in the Alps and 38% (n = 813) in the Apennines. The regions with the highest pond densities were the Central Alps (n = 642), followed by the Western Alps (n = 479), Central Apennines (n = 412), Eastern Alps (n = 222), Southern Apennines (n = 216), and Northern Apennines (n = 185). The total surface area covered by ponds was estimated at 4,258,640 m², with a mean of 1,716 m² per pond. Approximately 20% (n = 445) of the ponds were temporary, while 80% (n = 1,711) were permanent. In terms of land use, 83% (n = 1,797) of ponds were classified as natural, and 17% (n = 359) as anthropogenic. 3. Third objective (Chapters III, IV, V) — Diatom communities in Mediterranean and alpine ponds The third objective focused on analyzing diatom communities in Mediterranean and Alpine temporary ponds, evaluating how seasonality, hydroperiod, and physicochemical parameters influence taxonomic and functional alpha and beta diversity. A total of 12 temporary ponds were sampled in 15 the Presidential Estate of Castelporziano (sea level, 0–74 m a.s.l.) and 12 ponds in the Campo Imperatore plain (Gran Sasso and Monti della Laga National Park, ~1700 m a.s.l.). Results showed that, in Mediterranean temporary ponds, diatom species richness was not influenced by hydroperiod length or seasonal variation. The most important drivers of community structure were pH and electrical conductivity. Conversely, in Alpine ponds, diatom diversity mainly responded to local and environmental factors, which outweighed any potential geographical gradients. Elevation played a key role in shaping the uniqueness of diatom communities, promoting the development of functionally distinct assemblages at higher altitudes. 4. Fourth objective (Chapters VI, VII, VIII) — Effect of the altitudinal gradient on diatom communities The final objective was to assess how elevation and seasonality affect diatom communities, through the sampling of six ponds along an altitudinal gradient ranging from 0 to 2000 m a.s.l., at approximately 400 m intervals, over one year. Again, pH and electrical conductivity were confirmed as the main driving factors, together with altitude. Community similarity decreased with increasing elevation, halving every ~1059 m; initial similarity (at 1 m elevation difference) was estimated at 0.286, with a halving distance of about 289.56 m. Elevation and environmental variables independently shaped community structure, while seasonal effects were minor. Ecologically, these findings indicate that diatom communities in temporary ponds are strongly structured by physicochemical and altitudinal gradients, making them highly sensitive to environmental changes such as climate shifts or pollution. In conclusion, this PhD thesis addresses a largely understudied topic: the monitoring of the health status of temporary ponds in Italy, achieved through the nationwide mapping of their distribution and the use of diatoms as bioindicators of the effects of seasonality, elevation, and physicochemical variables on these fragile and ephemeral freshwater ecosystems.I documenti in IRIS sono protetti da copyright e tutti i diritti sono riservati, salvo diversa indicazione.


