Fujian Wufenglou dwellings : vernacular context and architectural typology

This dissertation addresses the long-standing misclassification where the Wufenglou dwelling is treated as a subtype of the Tulou within the study of Fujian rammed-earth architecture. Originating from field investigations in the Hakka and Minnan regions, this research reveals that Wufenglou constitutes a distinct architectural category with independent generative logics, spatial grammars, and structural systems. Currently, Hakka Wufenglou faces extinction without formal typological recognition, while Minnan Wufenglou lacks systematic definition. The objective of this study is to establish Wufenglou as an independent architectural type distinct from Tulou, tubao, and zhuangzhai, and to construct a typological system that clarifies the dual-system structure of its Hakka and Minnan lineages. The dissertation is organized into five chapters: Chapter I establishes the terminological independence of Wufenglou. It disambiguates the term “Tulou,” distinguishing between its macro Chinese sense (any rammed-earth dwelling) and its micro heritage sense (UNESCO-inscribed compounds), arguing that the broad category should be termed “rammed-earth dwellings”. Through etymological analysis, it demonstrates that “Wufenglou” is a historical concept symbolizing hierarchical order and imperial prestige rather than a mere descriptive label. Critical reviews of local terms (e.g., tanghengwu, dafudi, hutoucuo) reveal their limitations in defining the typology. Consequently, the study adopts “Wufenglou” as an untranslated proper noun, establishing it not merely from a symbolic point of view, but as a real, independent typological structure. Specifically, it is defined as an independent multi-storey courtyard dwelling characterized by a five-volume axial composition and a stepped front-low/rear-high profile. Chapter II identifies the shared cosmological and spatial principles governing Wufenglou. It details how Fengshui cosmological principle—specifically Yin-Yang balance, the Five Elements, and Qi circulation—is operationalized into a Nine-Square Grid layout. In this schema, the central cell (Position 5) functions as the open courtyard (huangji), while the 1–5–9 axis organizes the ritual sequence of entrance–courtyard–ancestor hall. The chapter also codifies orientation rules based on an anthropomorphic body analogy, where "front", "back", "left", and "right" are defined by the building’s stance rather than compass directions, and outlines adaptation strategies for non-south-facing sites using symbolic water and rear mounds. Chapter III analyzes the shared construction features and environmental adaptations of the type. Distributed along the Ting–Jiulong River basin, Wufenglou employs a stepped section and deep eaves to manage the subtropical climate. The construction process is documented as a ritual-technical sequence, from the Dashijiao (stone footing) to the Xietu (closing ritual). Key systems analyzed include the Sishuiguitang drainage logic, the hybrid load-bearing system combining rammed-earth walls with timber beams, and specific roof truss systems like Tailiangshi, Chuandoushi and local hybrids (Chaliangshi, Diedoushi). Spatial organization follows the “one-bright, two-dim” gradient and the ethical hierarchy where the left is superior to the right. Chapter IV differentiates the distinct generative logics of the two regional lineages. Although sharing a five-volume silhouette, the Hakka Wufenglou separates ritual space from residence, using modular jian-ting-qijiao housing units to form an independent main house (zhenglou), side wings (hengwu), and a separated defensive system. In contrast, the Minnan Wufenglou fuses ritual and residence within a single core, the main house (dingluo) based on an axial-bay (kaijian) housing system, identified by the unique titingjian (stair-pavilion) volume. The analysis highlights that Hakka side wings are constitutive to the basic type, whereas Minnan protective wings (hucuo) are additive extensions. Chapter V puts forward a preliminary discussion on the similarities and connections between Wufenglou and other Fujian rammed-earth dwellings. It argues that Wufenglou is not a subtype of Tulou but a terminal type derived from distinct layout rules: Hakka Wufenglou evolves from a Hall-and-Wing (tanghengwu) rule, while Minnan Wufenglou develops from an Axial-Bay (kaijian) rule. This is contrasted with Tulou, which follows Corridor Type (Hakka) or Unit Type (Minnan) logics. The study concludes that Wufenglou represents a highly codified architectural system that prioritizes ritual spatial order over the communal defense logic of Tulou.