Microallopatric speciation in the relict dung beetle genus Grebennikovius (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in the Eastern Arc Mountains

The Eastern Arc Mountains (EAMs) in Tanzania and Kenya are renowned for their exceptional species endemism often restricted to isolated mountain blocks. Forest fragmentation during the Pliocene–Pleistocene played a sig- nificant role in shaping the EAMs’ biodiversity by facilitating allopatric speciation between different mountains. However, only a few studies focused on species diversification within the same mountain block. In this article, we investigated the taxonomy and evolution of the dung beetle genus Grebennikovius, endemic to the Uluguru Mountains. Our goal was to unravel factors promoting allopatric speciation within a confined geographic area like the Ulugurus. We used an integrative taxonomic approach, combining phenotypic data and COI barcodes to delimit species and reconstructed a timetree of the genus. Molecular and morphological evidence consistently recovered 4 distinct Grebennikovius species, of which 3 are new to science: G. armiger n. sp., G. basilewskyi (Balthasar, 1960), G. lupanganus n. sp., and G. pafelo n. sp. Grebennikovius represents a rare case of microal- lopatry, with all species occurring in close proximity within different regions of the limited Uluguru forest (∼230 km2). We infer that speciation was driven by the interplay between climate fluctuations during the Miocene and mid-Pleistocene, Uluguru topography, and the stability of rainforest ecological conditions. The latter fac- tor probably favored the loss of wings and a specialization for Uluguru microhabitats, reinforcing population isolation and divergence. This study highlights a unique instance of diversification resulting from small-scale speciation events, providing valuable insights into the evolution of Eastern African rainforest arthropods and underscoring the importance of microhabitats conservation.